Historyguy.com:
The
U.S.-Mexican War
(1846-1848)
The
U.S.-Mexican War—(1846-1848):
The
Mexican-American War was the first major
conflict
(continue
reading..)
U.S.
Troops at the Siege of Veracruz
The
U.S.-Mexican War—(1846-1848): CAUSES,
TIMELINE, AND FACTS The
Mexican-American War was the first major conflict
driven by the idea of "Manifest Destiny"; the
belief that America had a God-given right, or
destiny, to expand the country's borders from 'sea
to shining sea'. This belief would eventually cause
a great deal of suffering for many Mexicans, Native
Americans and United States citizens. Following the
earlier Texas War of Independence from Mexico,
tensions between the two largest independent
nations on the North American continent grew as
Texas eventually became a U.S. state. Disputes over
the border lines sparked military confrontation,
helped by the fact that President Polk eagerly
sought a war in order to seize large tracts of land
from Mexico. CAUSES
OF CONFLICT: Why Did the Mexican-American War
Start? The war
between the United States and Mexico had two basic
causes. First, the desire of the U.S. to expand
across the North American continent to the Pacific
Ocean caused conflict with all of its neighbors;
from the British in Canada and Oregon to the
Mexicans in the southwest and, of course, with the
Native Americans. Ever since President Jefferson's
acquisition of the Louisiana Territory in 1803,
Americans migrated westward in ever increasing
numbers, often into lands not belonging to the
United States. By the time President Polk came to
office in 1845, an idea called "Manifest Destiny"
had taken root among the American people, and the
new occupant of the White House was a firm believer
in the idea of expansion. The belief that the U.S.
basically had a God-given right to occupy and
"civilize" the whole continent gained favor as more
and more Americans settled the western lands. The
fact that most of those areas already had people
living upon them was usually ignored, with the
attitude that democratic English-speaking America,
with its high ideals and Protestant Christian
ethics, would do a better job of running things
than the Native Americans or Spanish-speaking
Catholic Mexicans. Manifest Destiny did not
necessarily call for violent expansion. In both
1835 and 1845, the United States offered to
purchase California from Mexico, for $5 million and
$25 million, respectively. The Mexican government
refused the opportunity to sell half of its country
to Mexico's most dangerous neighbor.
The
second basic cause of the war was the Texas War of
Independence and the subsequent annexation of that
area to the United States. Not all American
westward migration was unwelcome. In the 1820's and
1830's, Mexico, newly independent from Spain,
needed settlers in the underpopulated northern
parts of the country. An invitation was issued for
people who would take an oath of allegiance to
Mexico and convert to Catholicism, the state
religion. Thousands of Americans took up the offer
and moved, often with slaves, to the Mexican
province of Texas. Soon however, many of the new
"Texicans" or "Texians" were unhappy with the way
the government in Mexico City tried to run the
province. In 1835, Texas revolted, and after
several bloody battles, the Mexican President,
Santa Anna, was forced to sign the Treaty of
Velasco in 1836 . This treaty gave Texas its
independence, but many Mexicans refused to accept
the legality of this document, as Santa Anna was a
prisoner of the Texans at the time. The Republic of
Texas and Mexico continued to engage in border
fights and many people in the United States openly
sympathized with the U.S.-born Texans in this
conflict. As a result of the savage frontier
fighting, the American public developed a very
negative stereotype against the Mexican people and
government. Partly due to the continued hostilities
with Mexico, Texas decided to join with the United
States, and on July 4, 1845, the annexation gained
approval from the U.S. Congress.
Mexico of
course did not like the idea of its breakaway
province becoming an American state, and the
undefined and contested border now became a major
international issue. Texas, and now the United
States, claimed the border at the Rio Grande River.
Mexico claimed territory as far north as the Nueces
River. Both nations sent troops to enforce the
competing claims, and a tense standoff ensued. On
April 25, 1846, a clash occurred between Mexican
and American troops on soil claimed by both
countries. The war had begun. DESCRIPTION
AND TIMELINE OF THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
WAR: The
Mexican-American War was largely a conventional
conflict fought by traditional armies consisting of
infantry, cavalry and artillery using established
European-style tactics. As American forces
penetrated into the Mexican heartland, some of the
defending forces resorted to guerrilla tactics to
harass the invaders, but these irregular forces did
not greatly influence the outcome of the war.
After the
beginning of hostilities, the U.S. military
embarked on a three-pronged strategy designed to
seize control of northern Mexico and force an early
peace. Two American armies moved south from Texas,
while a third force under Colonel Stephen Kearny
traveled west to Sante Fe, New Mexico and then to
California. In a series of battles at Palo Alto and
Resaca de Palma (near current-day Brownsville,
Texas), the army of General Zachary Taylor defeated
the Mexican forces and began to move south after
inflicting over a thousand casualties. In July and
August of 1846, the United States Navy seized
Monterey and Los Angeles in California. In
September, 1846, Taylor's army fought General
Ampudia's forces for control of the northern
Mexican city of Monterey in a bloody three-day
battle. Following the capture of the city by the
Americans, a temporary truce ensued which enabled
both armies to recover from the exhausting Battle
of Monterey. During this time, former President
Santa Anna returned to Mexico from exile and raised
and trained a new army of over 20,000 men to oppose
the invaders. Despite the losses of huge tracts of
land, and defeat in several major battles, the
Mexican government refused to make peace. It became
apparent to the Polk Administration that only a
complete battlefield victory would end the war.
Continued fighting in the dry deserts of northern
Mexico convinced the United States that an overland
expedition to capture of the enemy capital, Mexico
City, would be hazardous and difficult. To this
end, General Winfield Scott proposed what would
become the largest amphibious landing in history,
(at that time), and a campaign to seize the capital
of Mexico. On March
9, 1847, General Scott landed with an army of
12,000 men on the beaches near Veracruz, Mexico's
most important eastern port city. From this point,
from March to August, Scott and Santa Anna fought a
series of bloody, hard-fought battles from the
coast inland toward Mexico City. The more important
battles of this campaign include the Battles of :
Cerro Gordo (April 18), Contreras (August 20),
Churubusco (August 20), Molino del Rey (September
8) and Chapultepec (September 13). Finally, on
September 14, the American army entered Mexico
City. The city's populace offered some resistance
to the occupiers, but by mid-October, the
disturbances had been quelled and the U.S. Army
enjoyed full control. Following the city's
occupation, Santa Anna resigned the presidency but
retained command of his army. He attempted to
continue military operations against the Americans,
but his troops, beaten and disheartened, refused to
fight. His government soon asked for his military
resignation. Guerrilla operations continued against
Scott's lines of supply back to Veracruz, but this
resistance proved ineffective. On
February 2, 1848, The Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo
was signed, later to be ratified by both the U.S.
and Mexican Congresses. The treaty called for the
annexation of the northern portions of Mexico to
the United States. In return, the U.S. agreed to
pay $15 million to Mexico as compensation for the
seized territory. The bravery of the individual
Mexican soldier goes a long way in explaining the
difficulty the U.S. had in prosecuting the war.
Mexican military leadership was often lacking, at
least when compared to the American leadership. And
in many of the battles, the superior cannon of the
U.S. artillery divisions and the innovative tactics
of their officers turned the tide against the
Mexicans. The war cost the United States over $100
million, and ended the lives of 13,780 U.S.
military personnel. America had defeated its weaker
and somewhat disorganized southern neighbor, but
not without paying a terrible price. Something new and historical:
Want to learn how to drive a tank? Check out these
tank
driving
experiences.
CONSEQUENCES
OF THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR:
1.
The United States acquired the northern half of
Mexico. This area later became the U.S. states
of California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and
Utah.
2.
President Santa Anna lost power in Mexico
following the war.
3.
U.S. General Zachary "Old Rough and Ready"
Taylor used his fame as a war hero to win the
Presidency in 1848. A true irony is that
President Polk, a Democrat, pushed for the war
that led to Taylor, a Whig, winning the White
House.
4.
Relations between the United States and
Mexico remained tense for many decades to come,
with several military encounters along the
border.
5.
For the United States, this war provided a
training-ground for the men who would lead the
Northern and Southern armies in the upcoming
American Civil War.
UNIQUE
FACTS OR TRENDS OF THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
WAR: 1.
This war featured the first major amphibious
landing by U.S. forces in history.2.
The defeat of Mexico was the first time a
foreign enemy force occupied the capitol of the
nation. The French would also occupy Mexico City
in the 1860's. 3.
Despite early popularity at home, the war
was marked by the growth of a loud anti-war
movement which included such noted Americans as
Ralph Waldo Emerson, former president John
Quincy Adams and Henry David Thoreau. The center
of anti-war sentiment gravitated around New
England, and was directly connected to the
movement to abolish slavery. Texas became a
slave state upon entry into the
Union. 4.
One interesting aspect of the war involves the
fate of U.S. Army deserters of Irish origin who
joined the Mexican Army as the
Batallón San Patricio
(Saint Patrick's Battalion). This
group of Catholic Irish immigrants rebelled at
the abusive treatment by Protestant,
American-born officers and at the treatment of
the Catholic Mexican population by the U.S.
Army. At this time in American history,
Catholics were an ill-treated minority, and the
Irish were an unwanted ethnic group in the
United States. In September, 1847, the U.S. Army
hanged sixteen surviving members of the San
Patricios as traitors. To this day, they are
considered heroes in Mexico. 5. In
Mexico, a special day is remembered to celebrate
the bravery of the teenaged military cadets at
the military academy at Chapultepec Castle,
which was attacked by Scott's army on September
13, 1847. "Dia de Los Niños Heroes
de Chapultepec" ("day of the boy
heroes of Chapultepec), is commemorated
every year on the anniversary of the
battle. Ordered
to retreat by their Commandant, these young
cadets joined the fight- the boy heroes who are
honored every year are the four teenaged cadets
(Francisco Marquez, the youngest, was thirteen
years old!) and their lieutenant squadron
leader, Juan de la Barrera, (the oldest, age
20), who lost their lives in that
battle. CASUALTY
FIGURES OF THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR:
United
States-- 13,780 dead, many more wounded.
Mexico--
Much higher than the U.S. total. One figure
put Mexican casualties at approximately
25,000.
Outside
Links
for the Mexican-American
War
|
Wars
of
Mexico---A
list of Mexican wars and
conflicts.
|
Tyler,
Polk, and War with
Mexico--Information
on the war presented in
outline form. From the
University of San Diego
History Department
website.
|
Treaty
of Guadeloupe
Hidalgo--The
text of the peace treaty
ending the war between
the United States and
Mexico. From the
University of San Diego
History Department
website.
|
AZTEC
CLUB OF 1847 -- Military
Society of the Mexican
War
--The website for the
Aztec Club of 1847, a
society for descendants
of Mexican War veterans.
Contains some
interesting information
as well as a good list
of printed resources for
research.
|
The
Cottonbalers: Seventh
Regiment of U.S.
Infantry Living
History--
This web page, run by a
"living history"
association, is
dedicated to the 7th
Infantry Regiment which
fought in the
Mexican-American War.
Interesting information
on the unit's history
and life are found here,
as well as several
useful links.
|
Texas
Trails: The Mexican
War--Good
article on the war from
the Texas Trails
website.
|
Descendants
of Mexican War
Veterans--Very
informative site on the
war and the men who
fought it.
|
ELEMENTS
OF
CONTROVERSY--Very
interesting article on
the San Patricio
Battalion, a unit in the
Mexican army made up of
Irish-American
deserters. This author
looks at the controversy
around these "traitors",
from the Mexican and
Irish viewpoint. Worth
reading!
|
San
Patricio
Battalion
|
Invasion
Yanqui--Contains
pictures of the
U.S.-Mexican War and the
San
Patricios.
|
The
San
Patricios--Website
of Day Communications,
makers of a factual
documentary on Mexico's
Irish
soldiers.
|
The
Mexican-American War
Memorial
Homepage--
Presents the war from
the Mexican perspective.
Very interesting, and is
available in both
Spanish and English. The
English translation is a
bit rough in its
grammar, but is worth
reading.
|
Historic
Sites of the
U.S.-Mexican War in
Mexico--
|
John
Charles
Fremont--On
this site you will find
over 160 pages of new
and original information
that cannot be found
elsewhere on John
Fremont.
|
|
DATES
OF THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
WAR:
BEGAN:
April 25, 1846--The first battle
between the Mexican and U.S.
armies.
ENDED:
February 2, 1848--The signing of
the Treaty of Guadeloupe
Hidalgo.
| BELLIGERENTS
IN THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
WAR
The
United States
of America
VS.
Mexico
|
|
ALTERNATE
NAMES FOR THE
MEXICAN-AMERICAN
WAR:
U.S.-Mexican
War, Mexican War (US),
The War with Mexico
(US)
|
|
SOURCES
FOR THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
WAR:
1.
Kohn, George C.
Dictionary
of
Wars.
New York: Facts On File
Publications. 1986.
2.
Eisenhower, John S.D.
.So
Far From God: The U.S. War
With Mexico 1846-1848.
New
York: Anchor Books, Doubleday.
1989
3.
Winders, Richard Bruce.
Mr.
Polk's
Army.
Texas
A&M, 1997.
4.
Frazier, Donald S., ed. The
U.S. and Mexico at War:
Nineteenth Century
Expansionism and Conflict.
Macmillan Library Reference,
1998.
U.S.
Historical Flag courtesy of: FOTW
Flags Of The World website at
http://fotw.digibel.be/flags/
|
CONSEQUENCES
OF THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
WAR:
1.
The United States acquired the
northern half of Mexico. This
area later became the U.S. states
of California, Nevada, Arizona,
New Mexico and Utah.
2.
President Santa Anna lost power
in Mexico following the
war.
3.
U.S. General Zachary "Old Rough
and Ready" Taylor used his fame
as a war hero to win the
Presidency in 1848. A true irony
is that President Polk, a
Democrat, pushed for the war that
led to Taylor, a Whig, winning
the White House.
4.
Relations between the United
States and Mexico remained tense
for many decades to come, with
several military encounters along
the border.
5.
For the United States, this war
provided a training-ground for
the men who would lead the
Northern and Southern armies in
the upcoming American Civil
War.
|
Predecessor
Conflicts: (Prior related
conflicts leading to the
Mexican-American War
)
The
Texas War of Independence
(1835-1836)
Texas-Mexico
Border Conflict
(1837-1845?)
U.S.
Seizure of Monterey
(1842)
|
Concurrent
Conflicts: (Related conflicts to
the Mexican-American War
occurring at the same
time)
The
Bear Flag Revolt in California
(1846)
Apache
War in New Mexico
(1847)
Taos
Rebellion (1847)
|
|
|
|